Every year cancer claims the lives of hundreds of thousands of people worldwide. The populations of many of the heavily industrialized countries are particularly susceptible to cancer induced morbidity and mortality. In fact, cancer is the second leading cause of death in industrialized nations. For example, prostate cancer is the second most common malignancy in men. It is estimated that in 2002 in the United States nearly 180,000 men will be diagnosed with prostate cancer. Breast cancer is the most common female malignancy in most industrialized countries, and in the United States it is estimated that breast cancer will affect about 10% of women during their lives. Approximately 30 to 40% of women with operable breast cancer eventually develop metastases distant from the primary tumor.
Metastasis, the formation of secondary tumors in organs and tissues remote from the site of the primary tumor, is the main cause of treatment failure and death for cancer patients. Indeed, the distinguishing feature of malignant cells is their capacity to invade surrounding normal tissues and metastasize through the blood and lymphatic systems to distant organs. Cancer metastasis is a complex process by which certain cancer cells acquire substantial genetic mutations and perturbed signal cascades that allow them to leave the primary tumor mass and establish secondary tumors at distant sites. Metastatic cancer cells break adhesions with neighboring cells, dissolve the extracellular matrix, migrate and invade surrounding tissue, travel via the circulatory system, invade, survive and proliferate in new sites. Unfortunately, the molecular mechanisms that promote and restrain the metastatic spread of cancer cells have yet to be clearly identified.
Medical researchers have made considerable efforts to understand whether chemotactic agents are involved in metastasis and why particular cancers preferentially metastasize to certain sites. Breast cancer, for example, favors metastasizing to regional lymph nodes, bone marrow, and lung and liver tissues. Prostate cancer favors metastasizing to bone marrow. Several theories have been advanced to explain the preferential metastasis of certain cancers.
It has recently been shown that one important property of highly metastatic cells is their ability to respond to chemotactic agents such as paracrine and autocrine motility factors. For example, recent work done by Muller et al. provides evidence for chemotactic homing of breast cancer to metastatic sites. (Muller et al. “Involvement of chemokine receptors in breast cancer metastasis,” Nature, 410:50–56 [2001]); See also, M. More, “The role of chemoattraction in cancer metastases,” Bioessays, 23:674–676 [2001]). Muller et al. findings indicate that CXCR4 and CCR7 chemokine receptors are found on breast cancer cells and that ligands for these receptors are highly expressed at sites associated with preferential breast cancer metastases.
Many conventional assay methods have been adapted for studying the effects of chemotactic agents on cancer and other cells of interest (e.g., densitometric, analyses of membrane filters, visible spectrum or spectrophotometric ELISA microplate readers, fluorescence microplate readers, scintillation counters, and photoluminescence readers). Each of these methods has particular advantages and disadvantages. One disadvantage found in each of these methods is the requirement that the cells of interest be “tagged” with dyes, fluorescing agents, or radioisotopes, in order to observe the cellular responses to chemical agents. Extrinsic cell labeling techniques add to the expense and complexity of the existing assay methods and often requires the expertise of highly skilled technicians.
An important property of metastatic cells is their ability to produce proteases, such as Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMPs) that are capable of digesting constituents of the extracellular matrix. The elaboration of these proteases facilitates their invasion of tissues. The role of proteases in the metastatic process using in vitro and in vivo systems as well as their quantification for use as a prognostic indicator for metastatic potential has been widely reported. The amount of a given protease present can be measured using ELISA but this requires a specific antibody capable of reacting with the protease from a given species. Another drawback of ELISA is that it measures the total amount of a given protease and does not discriminate between proenzyme, activated enzyme or inhibitor complexed enzyme. For example, the activation state of MMP's in the cellular environment is tightly regulated by Tissue Inhibitors of Metalloproteinases (TIMPs). Zymography (to measure proteases) and reverse zymography (to measure TIMPs), are widely used methods that involve gel electrophoresis combined with enzymatic digestion of an appropriate substrate. Both the proenzyme and active forms of proteases can be distinguished on the basis of molecular weight. Unfortunately, standard zymographic methods are laborious requiring many preparative steps (Hawkes S P, Li H, Taniguchi T. Zymography and reverse zymography for detecting MMPs and TIMPs. In Matrix Metalloproteinase Protocols. Volume 151 of Methods in Molecular Biology. Ian Clark ed. Humana Press. Totowa N.J. 2001. pp 399–410).
Other assays used include a variety of protease assays including quantifying radiolabelled collagen fragnments released by enzymatic cleavage of a radiolabelled substrate, and the measurement of fluorescence produced when an fluorescently autoquenched fluorescent substrate undergoes digestion and creating an increase in quantifiable fluorescvent signal. These methods do not allow discrimination between proteases however (Cawston T E, Koshy P, Rowan A D. Assay of matrix metalloproteinases against matrix substrates. In Matrix Metalloproteinase Protocols. Volume 151 of Methods in Molecular Biology. Ian Clark ed. Humana Press. Totowa N.J. 2001. pp 389–397).
What are needed are assay devices and systems for detecting quantifying cell number and identifying their spatial location as well as identifying and quantifying proteases and protease inhibitors that do not require extrinsic cell labeling techniques that are robust and easier to use which allows for enhanced evaluation of samples.